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Nouns are words used to identify people, places, things, or ideas. They serve as the subjects or objects within sentences, encapsulating everything from concrete entities to abstract concepts.
- common nouns – general names for people, places or things (e.g. developer, algorithm, module, interface)
- proper nouns – specific names of people, places or things, pointing to unique entities (e.g. Linus Torvalds, Silicon Valley, GitHub, Python)
- countable nouns – nouns that allow for quantification (e.g. one thread, two repositories, three servers)
- uncountable nouns – nouns that do not (typically) have a plural form (e.g. documentation, data, bandwidth); a unit of measurement can be added to quantify these nouns (e.g. a block of code, a bit of data, a segment of bandwidth)
- abstract nouns – nouns representing ideas, qualities or conditions that cannot be perceived by the human senses (e.g. freedom, justice, complexity, efficiency)
- concrete nouns – opposite of abstract nouns; pointing to things that you can either see, hear, touch, smell or taste (e.g. keyboard, processor, motherboard)
- collective nouns – nouns referring to a group of individuals or things (e.g. family, team, array, dataset)
- compound nouns – nouns made up of two or more words that together express a single concept (e.g. source code, command line, binary tree)
- possessive nouns – nouns indicating ownership or possession (e.g. application's performance, system's architecture, program's output)
Pronouns are words used to replace nouns, thereby avoiding repetition.
- personal pronouns – pronouns representing specific people or things (e.g. he, she, it)
- possessive pronouns – pronouns indicating possession (e.g. his, hers)
- reflexive pronouns – pronouns used when the subject and the object of the sentence are the same entity, indicating that an action is performed on oneself (e.g. myself, himself, herself)
- indefinite pronouns – pronouns referring to nonspecific persons or things, used when the exact identity is unknown or irrelevant (e.g. someone)
Verbs are words that express actions, occurrences, or states of being. They provide crucial information about what the subject is doing or the situation the subject is in.
- action verbs – verbs expressing visible (physical) or conceptual (mental) actions (e.g. write, walk, estimate)
- linking verbs – verbs connecting the subject of the sentence to a subject complement (noun or adjective), which describes the subject (e.g. the software seems faulty)
- auxiliary verbs – verbs used in connection with a main verb to create phrases that convey tense, mood or voice (e.g. be, have, do)
- modal verbs – verbs conveying attitudes about the action indicated by the main verb; a necessity, possibility, permission or ability (e.g. can, must, should)
- transitive verbs – action verbs that require a direct object to complete their meaning; the action of the verb is transferred to the object (e.g. update, remove)
- intransitive verbs – action verbs that do not require a direct object to complete their meaning; the action remains with the subject (e.g. agree, skip)
- phrasal verbs – expressions that combine a verb with a preposition or adverb (or both) and function as a single semantic unit; the meaning of a phrasal verb can be different from the meanings of its separate parts (e.g. look up, bring about, break down)
- stative verbs – describe a state or condition, often relating to thoughts, emotions, senses or states of being (e.g. believe, love, know)
- dynamic verbs – opposite of stative verbs, dynamic verbs describe actions that have duration (e.g. run, speak)
- impersonal verbs – verbs not referring to a specific subject but rather expressing actions or states related to time, distances, weather or natural forces (e.g. it rains, it seems)
- regular verbs – form their past forms by adding -ed
- irregular verbs – have separate past forms (e.g. go → went)
Subject is the person or thing that performs the action described by the verb, or the person or thing that the sentence is about.
Object is the person or thing that receives the action of the verb. It is the entity that is affected by the action.
Adjectives are words that modify or describe attributes of nouns, providing additional information about their quantity, quality, size, condition, or origin.
- descriptive adjectives – describe the qualities or states of nouns (e.g. efficient, user-friendly)
- comparative adjectives – compare two entities (e.g. faster, more efficient)
- superlative adjectives – indicate the highest level of a particular quality within a group of entities (e.g. fastest algorithm, least secure protocol)
- quantitative adjectives – indicate the amount of nouns (e.g. zero, one, multiple, much)
- demonstrative adjectives – specify which nouns we're talking about, differentiating between things that are near (this for singular, these for plural) or further away (that for singular, those for plural)
- possessive adjectives – denote ownership (my, your, his, her, its, our, their)
- interrogative adjectives – modify nouns in questions (which, what, whose)
- distributive adjectives – refer to members of a group separately (e.g. each, every, any, either, neither)
- indefinite adjectives – give general, non-specific information about the noun (some, any, several, few, fewer, many, much, more, most, a lot of, a lots of, a little, less, a few, enough)
- ordinal adjectives – express the position of a noun in a sequence (e.g. first, second, third)
- proper adjectives – derived from proper nouns, these adjectives describe a particular thing associated with a specific person or a place and are therefore always capitalized (e.g. Agile methodology, Linux-based system)
Prepositions are words that link nouns, pronouns, or phrases to other parts of a sentence, typically indicating relationships in terms of place, time, or direction.
- prepositions of direction – indicate movement from one place to another (to, through, into, toward, onto, from, off, out of, past, up, down, over, under, around, across, along, through, towards, after, before, behind, beside, between, beyond, by)
- prepositions of location – indicate the place where something is located (at, on, in, by, next to, beside, near, among, between, against, underneath, beneath, below, above, over, inside, outside, on top of, in front of, behind)
- prepositions of time – denote the time something happens (at, on, in, by, before, after, during, until, since, from, to, past, within, throughout, over, under)
- prepositions of agent – reveal the doer of an action in passive sentences (by, about, for, with)
- prepositions of manner – indicate how a certain action was performed (by, with, in, on, like, as, in the manner of, via, through)
- prepositions of instrument – indicate the tool used to perform an action (with, by, on, using, through, via)
- prepositions of purpose – indicate the purpose of an action (for, to, in order to, so as to, for the purpose of)
- prepositions of possession – indicate ownership (of, with, to)
Tenses are used to express time in relation to the moment of speaking.
- past simple – describes actions that were completed at a specific time in the past (e.g. Yesterday, I debugged the application.)
- past continuous – indicates ongoing actions that were happening at a particular moment in the past. (e.g. I was compiling when the system crashed.)
- past perfect – describes an action that had been completed before another action occurred in the past (e.g. By the time the meeting started, I had already pushed my commits.)
- past perfect continuous – indicates actions that had been ongoing over a period in the past and were completed by a certain point in the past (e.g. I had been testing the application for hours before I identified the bug.)
- present simple – expresses general truths, habits or routines (e.g. I write code every day.)
- present continuous – indicates ongoing actions occurring at the moment of speaking (e.g. I am performing a code review.)
- present perfect – describes actions that occurred at an unspecified time in the past and have relevance to the present moment (e.g. I have fixed the bug.)
- present perfect continuous – indicates actions that began in the past and continue to the present (e.g. I have been working on this branch since last week.)
- future simple – expresses actions that will happen in the future (e.g. I will push my commits tomorrow.)
- future continuous – indicates actions that will be ongoing at a specific time in the future (e.g. At this time tomorrow, I will be helping my colleague.)
- future perfect – describes actions that will be completed before a certain point in the future (e.g. By the end of the month, I will have completed my task.)
- future perfect continuous – indicates actions that will be ongoing until a specific point in the future (e.g. By next year, I will have been working in this company for five years.)
Conditionals refer to if–then constructions that express hypotheses and their potential consequences.
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zero conditional – used for facts or general truths, where the outcome is always true if the condition is met; the structure is:
[if] + [present simple], [present simple] (e.g. If water reaches 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.) -
first conditional – expresses a possible condition and its probable result in the future; the structure is:
[if] + [present simple], [will] + [base form of the verb] (e.g. If the user enters incorrect login details, the system will display an error message.) -
second conditional – expresses situations that are hypothetical, imaginary or otherwise unlikely; the structure is:
[if] + [past simple], [would] + [base form of the verb] (e.g. If I were a better software engineer, I would design a more efficient system.) -
third conditional – reflects on the past, imagining a different outcome from what actually happened, contradicting the past facts; the structure is:
[if] + [past perfect], [would have] + [past participle] (e.g. If the programmer had written stronger tests, they would have caught the bug earlier.) -
mixed conditional – combines the second and third conditionals, reflecting a present result of an unreal past condition; the structure is: [if] + [past perfect], [would] + [base form of verb] (e.g. If the development team had followed the project timeline, we would be ahead of schedule now.)
Note: Mixed conditionals can be complex and exhibit considerable variation in structure. They often mix time references, combining unreal past conditions with present or future outcomes.
In the inversion of conditionals, the word if is eliminated and the subject and auxiliary verb are inverted, akin to forming a question (e.g. Had the programmer written stronger tests, they would have caught the bug earlier.)
Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific.
- definite article – the – used to refer to specific or particular nouns, employed when both the speaker and the listener know the specific entity being referred to, either because there is only one, or because it has been previously mentioned or is common knowledge. (e.g. The compiler generated an error.)
- indefinite article – a or an – used to refer to non-specific nouns that are being mentioned for the first time, or whose exact identity is not important, or unknown (e.g. We need a software developer for this task.)
- zero article – used with plural or uncountable nouns when referring to them in a general sense (e.g. Software engineers are in high demand nowadays.)
Adverbs are primarily used to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They provide additional information about how, when, where, and to what extent an action is performed.
- adverbs of manner – describe the way in which something is done (e.g. quickly); are placed directly after the verb they modify (.e.g The system operates efficiently.)
- adverbs of frequency – express how often an action occurs (e.g. frequently); are placed before the main verb, but after auxiliary verbs (e.g. The function always returns a value.)
- adverbs of time – describe the timing of an action (e.g. nightly, weekly); are placed at the end of the sentence
- adverbs of place – describe the location of an action (e.g. remotely); are placed at the end of the sentence
- adverbs of degree – describe the degree of an action, adjective, or another adverb (e.g. nearly); usually precede the word they are modifying
- adverbs of probability – indicate the likelihood of an action happening (e.g. possibly); are placed before the main verb, but after auxiliary verbs
- adverbs of affirmation and negation – confirm or deny the action of the verb (e.g. certainly); are generally placed before the main verb, but after the verb "to be" or modal verbs
In sentences with multiple verbs, adverbs can be placed after the first auxiliary verb or at the end of the sentence, depending on emphasis. (e.g. The program can easily modify the file.)
Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses.
- coordinating conjunctions – link similar elements (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)
- subordinating conjunctions – connect an independent clause with a dependent clause (e.g. after, although, as, because, before, even if, even though, if, in order that, once, provided that, since, so that, than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, whereas, wherever, while)
- correlative conjunctions – link equal elements (both...and, either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, whether...or, as...as, such...that, so...that)
- conjunctive adverbs – link independent clauses to show cause and effect (accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, instead, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, similarly, still, subsequently, therefore, thus, then, thereupon)
Clauses typically contain a subject and a predicate, the former being the actor in the sentence and the latter describing the action or state of being.
- main (independent) clauses – are capable of standing alone as complete sentences because they express a complete thought (e.g. The program compiles successfully.)
- subordinate (dependent) clauses – depend on each other, as both provide information needed to form a complete sentence (e.g. Although we are doing our best, we are behind schedule.)
- relative (adjective) clauses – provide additional information about a noun or pronoun in the sentence (e.g. This feature, which was developed by John, has received good feedback.)
- noun clauses – act as the subject, object, or complement in a sentence, performing the function of a noun (e.g. What she said at the meeting was surprising.)
- simple sentence – one independent clause without any subordinate clauses; has a subject, a predicate, and expresses a complete thought (e.g. The function works correctly.)
- compound sentence – two independent clauses with related ideas of equal importance (e.g. The developer writes the code, and the machine executes it.)
- complex sentence – one independent clause and at least one dependent clause (e.g. If the user inputs invalid data, the program displays an error message.)
- compound-complex sentence – at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause (e.g. The software passes all tests, but when it encounters unexpected inputs, it fails to function properly.)
Words or phrases that express strong emotion or surprise.
- primary interjections – words that function solely as interjections with no other grammatical purpose (e.g. Wow!, Oops!
- secondary interjections – words borrowed from other parts of speech that serve temporarily as interjections (e.g. Great!, Well..., No way!)
- vocative interjections – words used to call or summon someone (e.g. Hey, John... Excuse me, sir...)
- exclamatory interjections – words that express strong emotion (e.g. Fantastic!)
- greeting interjections – words used in social interactions to greet or acknowledge others (e.g. Hello! Good morning!)
- farewell interjections – words used when parting from someone or ending a conversation (e.g. Goodbye!)
- declarative – sentences that make a statement or express a fact (e.g. This function returns a JSON object.)
- interrogative – questions requesting information or clarification (e.g. Does the API support GET requests?)
- imperative – commands or requests (e.g. Execute the script.)
- exclamatory – expressions of strong emotion or excitement (e.g. Incredible performance boost!)
- active – in active voice, the subject performs the action expressed by the verb (e.g. The programmer writes the code.)
- passive – passive voice emphasizes the action being done to the subject or the subject receiving the action; the doer, if mentioned, comes after the action, introduced by the preposition by (e.g. The code is being written by Joseph.)
- indicative mood — used to state facts, ask questions, or express opinions as if they were facts (e.g. She writes every day.)
- imperative mood – used for commands, instructions, requests, or suggestions (e.g. Please close the door.)
- subjunctive mood – used for wishes, hypothetical situations, demands, or conditions contrary to fact (e.g. If I were a better software engineer, the tests would be more stable.)
- conditional mood – utilizes auxiliary verbs to create conditions and hypothetical scenarios (e.g. I would travel if I had more time.)
- interrogative mood – used for questions (e.g. Do you know the time?)
- infinitive mood – basic form of the verb without inflection to indicate tense, mood, or aspect (e.g. To optimize the algorithm, one must analyze its complexity and resource consumption.)
Idiomatic expressions are phrases whose meanings cannot be understood from the literal interpretation of the words (e.g. go down the rabbit hole, reinvent the wheel, back to the drawing board)
- quantifiers for countable nouns (e.g. many, few, a few, several, a couple of, numerous)
- quantifiers for uncountable nouns (e.g. much, little, a bit of, a great deal of, a large amount of)
- universal quantifiers – can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns and denote complete inclusion or exclusion (e.g. all, every, no, none)
- quantity
- opinion
- size
- physical quality
- shape
- age
- color
- origin
- material
- type
- purpose
- metaphor – figure of speech that makes na implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two unrelated things (e.g. This new database is the backbone of our application.)
- simile – figure of speech that compares two different things using the words like or as (e.g. Debugging this code is like looking for a needle in a haystack.)
- alliteration – repetition of the same initial consonant sound in a series of words (e.g. Software solutions significantly streamline system setup.)
- hyperbole – exaggerated statement or claim not meant to be taken literally (e.g. It would take an eternity to process data this large without optimizing our algorithms.)
- personification – attribution of a personal nature or human characteristics to something non-human, or the representation of an abstract quality in human form (e.g. The server is exhausted from handling thousands of requests per second.)
- irony – stating something in a way that is the opposite of what is expected (e.g. After coding for 12 hours straight to fix the bug, the solution was to restart the system.)
- oxymoron – figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction (e.g. This is clearly a minor catastrophe in our coding convention.)
- euphemism – polite, indirect expression that replaces words and phrases considered impolite (e.g. The software is not responsive; it's just taking a break.)
A well-structured paragraph presents one main idea, supported by sentences that enhance understanding and engagement:
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topic sentence – presents the main idea of the paragraph; this sentence sets the direction and tone
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supporting sentences – several sentences that elaborate on the main idea, providing details, explanations, examples, or evidence
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analysis or evaluation – connects the details to the main idea, explaining their relevance or implications
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concluding sentence – summarizes the main idea and provides a transition to the next paragraph, if necessary